Vol. 75 No. 4 — July/August 1994 —
Flying the World
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This year of anniversaries calls for an
appreciation of man's ability to fly, one of the greatest
of human achievements. The miracle of modern aviation has
not been wrought totally on the technical side. It also entails
a triumph of international cooperation. That is what permits
us to travel almost anywhere on earth today...
It so happens that two of the great unsung events in the
history of aviation occurred the same year in two cities of
the same name: St. Petersburg, Florida, and St. Petersburg,
Russia. On January 1, 1914, a pilot named Tony Jannus took
off from the American St. Petersburg on a 23-minute flight
to Tampa, which marked the beginning of scheduled air service
as we know it today. Six months later in Russia, a 24-year-old
engineering genius named Igor Sikorsky carried six passengers
on a test flight lasting 6 1/2 hours in a huge (for the time)
four-engine aircraft. Later that year Sikorsky and three colleagues
flew this prototype of the modern airliner from St. Petersburg
to Kiev and back on a round trip of 2,000 kilometres.
It is difficult for people living 80 years later in the
final decade of the "Century of Flight" to appreciate just
how revolutionary was Sikorsky's idea of a large enclosed
people-carrier. We have now become overly familiar with a
phenomenon which in centuries past remained beyond man's most
distant aspirations, namely the ability to fly. The first
aviators approached this technological triumph in a gingerly
way, counting their speed and the horsepower of their engines
in low double digits and their time aloft in minutes rather
than hours. For some years after the Wright brothers' Flyer
One biplane first lifted off the ground for 12 seconds
in December, 1903, every flight was a venture which could
end in injury or death.
At that stage, however, nobody put much stock in the prospect
of aircraft transporting people and goods from one place to
another. The machines were necessarily of such light construction
that they could only carry one passenger at a time. The first
air passengers did not want to be taken anywhere in particular.
Rather, they were on the original "joy ride," defying danger
for the fantastic sensation of breaking the bonds of gravity.
The prevailing thinking about the future of aviation was
that it had some military potential, and would provide fine
sport, like horseback riding. In inaugurating a regular passenger
service (four round trips a day; return fare $10) the proprietors
of the Florida St. Petersburg's Airboat Line were taking a
daring step ahead of their time.
Sikorsky was even more visionary in seeing aviation as a
means of large-scale, long-distance transportation. Until
the turn of the 20th century, the only speculation on the
possibility of airborne commerce came from poets like Byron
and Tennyson. Since they do not actually have to do what they
write about, poets can write about doing anything they like.
But Sikorsky was a hands-on workman with an intimate knowledge
of the myriad and massive difficulties of what he was trying
to accomplish - build the progenitor of a breed of airborne
giants that would carry passengers and cargo across oceans
from city to city with no intermediate stops.
The outbreak of World War I soon after his epic 1914 flight
cast a shadow over Sikorsky's grand visions. Instead of going
into commercial service, his magnificent flying machine made
its debut as the world's first heavy bomber. Seventy-three
warplanes were built according to his basic design, graduating
in range and power. They flew about 400 missions over a distance
of 120,000 kilometres. Apparently all were destroyed in the
chaos of Russia's revolution and military collapse.
Still, by demonstrating that a plane of that size could
be flown regularly, Sikorsky deserves the title of the father
of the modern transport aircraft. (In the 1940s he would also
become the father of the modern helicopter.) Following Russia's
lead, the major combatant nations in World War I all developed
long-range bombers. It was in a stripped-down British Vickers
Vimy bomber that two Royal Air Force officers, John Alcock
and A. W. Brown, became the first men to fly directly across
the Atlantic Ocean on June 15, 1919.
Even as they braved the North Atlantic winds, commercial
aviation was off and running on a practical level. Airlines
had been formed with planes and ground facilities left over
from World War I, operating scheduled services among many
points in continental Europe and Great Britain. Since the
routes criss-crossed national boundaries, it soon became clear
that aviation would bring about a fundamental change in the
relationships among states.
From the beginning, a progressive and
internationalist approach
When delegates from 33 nations took time out from the peace
negotiations in Paris to discuss this question in 1919, they
proceeded on the premise that the traditional legal terms
of reference for international commerce could not be applied
to the new industry. If they equated it with land transportation,
then a flight passing over a country should be subject to
all the laws of the land underneath it, which could prove
vexatious and cumbersome for all parties. But if they followed
the precedent of marine transportation and declared a kind
of aerial freedom of the seas, then the nations being overflown
would have no control over what was being done in their own
airspace.
The agreement which resulted from that meeting contained
a solution which has served the international aviation community
nicely ever since, to the effect that each state would maintain
sovereignty over its own airspace without prejudice to the
right of innocent passage by aircraft of other nations. The
"Paris Convention" also took a broad internationalist approach
to such matters as airworthiness certification, pilot licensing,
and aircraft registration and identification. To implement
the convention, the first intergovernmental aviation organization
was launched - the International Committee for Air Navigation
(ICAN).
In the meantime, the airlines themselves had come to the
conclusion that commercial aviation would require extraordinary
international cooperation to meet its full potential. So,
in August, 1919, representatives of the British, Danish, Dutch,
German, Norwegian and Swedish carriers came together in the
Hague to form the International Air Traffic Association (IATA),
a non-political organization dedicated to coordinating operating
and business practices on international air routes.
It was clear from the beginning that, as a quasi-public
service, commercial aviation would have more contact with
governments than other industries. At the time IATA was founded,
the finances of its members were heavily dependent on airmail,
the industry's original financial mainstay. It successfully
lobbied to win for its members a regular share of the world's
mail.
It was also clear that the organization representing commercial
carriers would have to work closely with the organization
representing governments. IATA and ICAN formed a common front
to persuade governments to standardize the ground signals
which informed pilots of wind direction, cloud ceilings, etc.
When these were replaced by radio, the two organizations made
sure that commercial air traffic was allotted its own fixed
frequencies. Their joint efforts in developing navigation
and landing aids enabled instrument flying at night and in
murky weather. They also joined in successful efforts to talk
governments into eliminating needless red tape.
As traffic grew, the operators cooperated among themselves
to establish many of the distinguishing characteristics which
today make international aviation an industry like no other.
IATA meetings resulted in a continuous exchange of technical,
operational and statistical information which formed the basis
for the coordination of schedules, documentation, and legal
provisions.
In the all-important setting of standards, an IATA committee
decided that all dial instruments should turn clockwise, and
that all throttles should be made so that pushing on them
would increase speed and pulling on them would reduce it.
Through IATA, the airlines developed arrangements whereby
one airline could book passengers on others through a single
set of tickets, the precursor of the impressive communications
and financial system which now allows "one-stop shopping"
for multiple-airline journeys. As far back as the 1920s, members
were laying the groundwork for the modern travel industry,
agreeing on uniform baggage allowances, travel agents' certification
and commissions, round-trip discounts, and terms for inclusive
tour packages.
The 1930s ushered in a new era of international flight,
dominated by tri-motor transports and flying boats. Using
a combination of both types of equipment, Pan American Airways
opened up routes from the United States to points throughout
the Caribbean and Latin America as far south as Buenos Aires.
Later it launched its famous China Clipper service to the
Far East. Not to be outdone, Britain's Imperial Airways used
flying boats to fly from England to South Africa, India and
Australia. Fuel limitations necessitated a number of overnight
stops along the way. A person travelling from Britain in this
fashion would take 8 1/2 days to reach Singapore and 12 1/2
days to reach Australia. That may seem long until one recalls
that it took six weeks to get to Australia by ship.
Oddly enough, the last ocean to be flown by airlines on
a regular basis was the narrowest and most-travelled one -
the Atlantic. True, the German-built lighter-than-air craft,
the Graf Zeppelin, had crossed between Europe and North
America with 20 passengers in 1928 at a leisurely 100 kilometres
an hour. But the airship experiment was short-lived: it ended
with the last of several fatal disasters when the German Hindenberg
burst into flames on landing in New Jersey with the loss of
36 lives in May 1937. Two months later the first pathfinding
commercial flights by the flying boats of Imperial and Pan
American Airways opened up a transatlantic route using jump-off
bases in Ireland and Newfoundland.
The logistical imperatives of World War II made intercontinental
flights commonplace, although they were generally in uncomfortable
military aircraft stripped to the bare essentials. The exceptions
were Igor Sikorsky's new line of flying boats, which in the
latter stages of the war carried 38 privileged passengers
on flights as long as from New York to Rome. Sikorsky had
emigrated to the United States and founded a flying boat company.
In middle-age, he saw his youthful dream of non-stop transoceanic
passenger service come true.
From the very beginning, the development of commercial aviation
had been notable for the remarkable foresight of everyone
concerned, from designers to manufacturers to airlines to
government regulators. There was perhaps no greater act of
foresight than the convening of the International Civil Aviation
Conference in Chicago in November, 1944, when World War II
was still very much under way.
This gathering of 52 nations recognized that there would
be an irresistible surge of commercial aviation activity in
the aftermath of the war, which would transform the world
as people then knew it. In this "new world order," international
cooperation would be more crucial than ever. The Chicago Convention
promulgated the "freedoms of the air" by which multilateral
relationships in aviation have been ruled ever since.
Out of the conference was born the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO), which is now celebrating its 50th anniversary.
The Montreal-based United Nations agency is dedicated to maintaining
orderly and safe commerce on the world's airways, on which
it regulates operating practices and traffic control. Governed
by an assembly and council of nations, ICAO sets standards
for the licensing and infrastructure of world aviation, provides
technical assistance, keeps track of key statistics, and mediates
international disputes.
The UN establishes a 'new world order' on international air routes
As in pre-war days, there was a need for a parallel organization
of commercial carriers to work with that of governments. Thus
IATA, which had become a casualty of the war, was revived
in 1945. The new organization, this time named the International
Air Transport Association, also has its headquarters
in Montreal, in close proximity to its governmental counterpart.
It has since grown vastly to embrace 224 member airlines which
fly to 133 nations. Today, ICAO and IATA work closely together
on many matters of mutual concern.
For more than a decade after the war, ships remained the
dominant form of overseas passenger transportation. In 1952,
the SS United States sailed from New York to Southampton
in three days, 10 hours and 40 minutes, an incredible 10 hours
faster than any vessel had ever before crossed the North Atlantic.
Its achievement was clouded by the fact that a four-engine
Constellation could make the run from New York direct to London
or Paris in under 12 hours.
In the summer of 1957 came the fateful day when more people
crossed the Atlantic by airplane than by ocean liner. As John
Maxtone- Graham put it in his book, The Only Way to Cross
: "Over the postwar fleets that sailed the North Atlantic
flew aircraft that would cripple the ships as no storm ever
had."
The passenger flying boat also became obsolete, thanks to
a wartime expansion in the number of airfields worldwide and
enhancements in the range and size of ground-landing aircraft.
The war also gave rise to radar and powerful new radio systems
which permitted airplanes to navigate safely over vast distances.
And just at the end of the hostilities had come the most far-reaching
development of all, the jet engine, which was briefly used
to power small German and British military planes.
In 1952 British Overseas Airways Corporation, now British
Airways, inaugurated the world's first scheduled jet passenger
service between London and Johannesburg. By the end of the
decade the British deHavilland Comets had yielded pride of
place to the much bigger American Boeing 707s and Douglas
DC-8s.
By carrying twice as many people twice as fast as propeller-driven
passenger planes, the jets sparked their own particular aviation
revolution. They shrunk the world by bringing distant points
closer together in terms of travelling time. For instance,
Montreal and London became six hours apart, compared with
13 hours 10 years earlier. (The supersonic BAC/Aérospatiale
Concorde would later render London and New York less than
three hours apart.)
Mammoth machines more wonderful than
Jules Verne's dreams
Not only did the jets slash the time spent on the more familiar
routes, they made it feasible to go to places that were once
dauntingly distant. A person in Toronto, for instance, could
contemplate without a shudder catching a plane for Tokyo.
By bringing business people from different countries face-to-face,
the jet delivered the kick-start to today's global economy.
Among other things, it transformed the arts and international
politics. Now, city dwellers in any western country could
enjoy live performances by the world's top musicians and entertainers.
"Shuttle diplomacy" brought a more personal touch to relations
among world leaders, with historic results in settling differences
among states.
But the heaviest impact of the jet engine on human affairs
came in 1970 with the introduction of the Boeing 747. That
first jumbo jet carried 385 passengers; the basic design has
since been taken through a succession of changes, so that
the latest model has a capacity of over 575, plus crew. These
mammoth machines surpass in wonder anything that could have
come from the imagination of Jules Verne. They are like flying
hotels, carrying all the facilities necessary to feed and
otherwise care for multitudes of people while cruising far
above the clouds at a speed of almost 1,000 kilometres an
hour for up to 15 hours at a stretch.
The combination of size and efficiency of these and similar
giant- sized planes has generated economies of scale undreamt-of
by airline people a few years ago. The effect has been to
drive down the cost of air travel relative to average incomes
and the cost of other services. An economy return ticket between
Vancouver and Ottawa in 1959 cost $400. Adjusted for inflation,
that same amount today would take you handily to Hong Kong
and back.
Whereas overseas travel was previously the preserve of a
small economic elite, low air fares have dramatically opened
up the world to ordinary people. Three generations ago, the
hidden rose-red city of Petra had been viewed only by the
most intrepid (and well-off) adventurers. Now a secretary
from Winnipeg can see this ancient marvel on a stopoff in
Jordan on her way to view the Taj Mahal.
Jet aviation is directly responsible for creating what is
now the world's largest industry, international tourism. Hundreds
of thousands of travel agencies have opened their doors to
serve pleasure travellers, and resorts, hotels and other tourist
facilities have sprung up almost literally from pole to pole.
Though many would argue that this is not altogether a good
thing for the host nations, there can be no doubt about its
enormous economic impact. It is estimated that tourism is
directly or indirectly responsible for one out of every nine
jobs in the world.
The potential despoliation of cultures and environments
on the tourist circuit is only one feature of the inevitable
dark side of progress in international aviation. If the jet
plane has spawned a new class of world traveller, it has also
spawned a new and particularly vicious class of terrorist.
As well, the extreme competition which has made overseas air
travel such a fabulous bargain has spread financial distress
throughout the industry, causing many airlines (including
the historic Pan American) to succumb to bankruptcy. Most
others are surviving by the financial skin of their teeth.
But the industry no doubt will overcome its present problems,
just as it has overcome so many others in the 75 years since
the forerunners of ICAO and IATA were founded. In those years
it has been through social upheavals, depressions, recessions,
and wars both hot and cold. Throughout it all, civil aviation
has remained a model of pragmatic international cooperation
in the interests of the convenience, comfort, and safety of
its users everywhere. If all human affairs were conducted
in the same spirit, mankind would have a lot less to worry
about.
Published by RBC Financial Group. All editions from the RBC
Letter collection are available on our web site at www.rbc.com/responsibility/letter.
Our e-mail address is: rbcletter@rbc.com.
Publié aussi en francais.
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