Vol. 55, No. 10 — October 1974 —
A Parliamentary
Democracy
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Government is the vastest of all
human enterprises, and it needs to be constantly examined
to see that it is functioning well. It is the organization
through which the state manifests its will, issues its commands,
and conducts its affairs. The state is given that power by
the will of the people of Canada, expressed through the vote
of a free, unfettered, secret ballot.
People vote for the same reasons as they form or join or
support groups that are seeking to bring about social or community
improvement: they wish to have a hand in promoting welfare;
they want to be part of life.
When a voter touches pencil to paper in casting his ballot
he is reminded that he is not living alone. He is one of the
whole community, sharing at this moment in choosing the persons
who shall carry out his wishes in the government of the nation.
Twenty-five years ago, when Canada was embarking on the
crucial post-war years, this bank sent out slips to readers
of its Monthly Letter. They read:
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"This is a year when Canadians exercise one of the greatest privileges of Democracy - the right to vote. The men we choose will be our constitutional leaders in domestic and foreign affairs. Great responsibility will rest upon them. But their responsibility is first of all our responsibility, because we choose them. Democracy is a form of government for free and upright people who take pride in governing themselves, and who do govern themselves." |
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Democracy is defined as a system of government in which
the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by
them or by their elected agents under a free electoral system.
The essence of democracy is that consent is free after free
debate.
The principle that what concerns all must be approved by
all is impossible of attainment, because, human nature being
as it is, there will always be a dissenting minority.
Freedom of thought, freedom of speech, freedom of assemblage
and secret choice of representatives are all part of the fabric
of democracy. Parliamentary democratic government is direction
of the affairs of the state by a majority that provides the
minority with the possibility of becoming a majority by the
education of citizens to its point of view.
In Canada's parliamentary democracy every citizen is faced
by a sovereign responsibility: that of directing his own fate.
Through their selected government, men and women find it possible
to establish themselves in mutually fulfilling relationship
to their fellow citizens, and that is the central function
of happy human life.
The town meeting
The only way in which a person can make some approach to
knowing the whole of a subject affecting him is by hearing
what can be said about it by people of every variety of opinion.
Since earliest times, men and women have been trying to create
a system that will give them this opportunity to learn about
things.
In Greece of the sixth to the fourth century B.C. every
citizen had the right to attend and speak and vote in the
assembly. Since then, there have been many plans devised to
preserve the ideal of government by citizens who meet face
to face to discuss their problems. It is difficult indeed
to adapt a form of government that was developed in simple,
intimate, community life to an era of great nation states,
large and centralized organization, and highly specialized
knowledge.
The town meeting was such an effort. It was a general meeting
of the inhabitants of a town in which they were able to make
their voices heard. They were recognized as persons, and not
as faceless cogs in a machine. Such pure democracy, person-to-person
discussion and decision, would be impossible in a nation,
province, or city, hence representative democracy has developed.
It is not by chance, but by enlightened development, that
government in Canada provides what people all over the world
desire: a liberal environment; a fluid society free from class
barriers; opportunity to choose and to progress in profession
or trade according to one's ambition, ability and energy;
liberty to stand up and speak out for things in which one
believes; and the power to choose those who are to have the
authority to maintain these freedoms.
Canadians have confidence that their aspirations can be
met within this system. Many other nations have democratic
constitutions that are as perfect as Canada's, but Canada
has added an ingredient: she has given a valuable demonstration
that tolerance must be an intrinsic part of any real democracy.
Obviously, the government cannot be looked upon as an institution
that acts in a Santa Claus way, handing out goodies. Before
a government can become kind it must be right. Rightness is
the virtue every citizen requires above all other government
virtues.
The word "politics" has become tarnished by confusing it
with party political feuds. Politics is not a thing apart
from civilization, but a manifestation of civilization in
growth. It changes form and function in accord with changes
in the composition and ideals of society.
As long as we live in a changing world about which our knowledge
is incomplete, we must be prepared to listen to other people's
opinions about government and government measures. Political
parties keep us reminded that there are at least two fairly
meritorious sides to every major political question on which
men disagree.
Kinds of government
Under the federal system of government in Canada there are:
(1) a national government to control matters of concern to
the whole country, and (2) provincial governments to control
matters of concern to the individual provinces. Both sorts
of government work openly, in the broad daylight of public
scrutiny.
Diversity in unity, not legislated conformity, constitutes
the strength of Canadian politics, but it tries, by persuasion
and the application of common sense, to extend people's co-operative
capacities.
Ours is representative government, consisting in the people's
power to select and replace the executive charged with the
task of administering the country's business. Instead of a
town meeting we have government by elected representatives.
That government represents the electors by making decisions
in their behalf.
Representation by selection is a very great thing. The members
of parliament form a deliberative assembly with one interest:
that of the whole nation. Its members cease to be parochial.
They owe the nation their broad-gauge unbiased opinions, their
mature judgment, and their enlightened consciences.
They may receive the advice of their constituents, but they
are not obliged to follow that advice if they believe it to
be inconsistent with the general interests of their country.
As people of conscience they have full freedom to act as their
judgment prompts them to act.
Besides being representative, Canada's government is also
responsible government. People placed in power by the electors
are accountable for their behaviour. The executive officials
(the cabinet) must secure majority support for their proposals
in the elected house, the House of Commons, or resign from
office.
Modern society will not work without directing hands and
technical experts in charge of its complicated machinery,
but they must remain under control by the representatives
elected by the people.
In spite of all the difficulties attending their working,
parliamentary assemblies are the best form of government mankind
has yet discovered. Parliament is not designed to dominate
citizens but to promote their development so that every person
may live and act in freedom from fear and with the opportunity
to pursue what he believes to be the good life.
Parliament is not the tilting ground of factions or a forum
for the recital of wrongs inflicted and sustained by various
groups, but a place where representatives of the people can
talk over the nation's problems. Thus people from every part
of the country have a voice in deciding policies.
Duties of parliament
Canada is a country of great economic, geographic and ethnic
diversity. It needs ties to draw it together and to reconcile
its differences. The most important of these is the Parliament
of Canada, consisting of the Senate and the House of Commons.
The House of Commons is the elective lower house whose business
it is to arrive at agreement on the best measures for the
good of the country. This can be done only through the opposition
of forces, bringing out all relevant points in an issue.
Sir John G. Bourinot, historian and authority on parliamentary
government, and author of Parliamentary Procedure and Government
in Canada, put parliamentary duties in this way: "The
principles that lie at the basis of English parliamentary
law have been always kept steadily in view by the Canadian
Parliament: these are - to protect a minority and restrain
the improvidence or tyranny of a majority; to secure the transaction
of public business in an orderly manner; to enable every member
to express his opinion within the limits necessary to preserve
decorum and prevent an unnecessary waste of time; and to prevent
any legislative action being taken on sudden impulse."
The House of Commons is the working place of the men and
women who have been elected by citizens to make decisions
guiding the conduct of the country's affairs. It can be the
scene of great decisions greatly made or the arena in which
small matters are bloated into time-wasting talk.
There is constant effort being made by those members who
think constructively about their role to increase the efficiency
of the House. More has to be done than think up ideas and
present them in speeches. The legislators must see that things
are accomplished.
Rational democratic government requires intelligent discussion,
a sustained, disciplined consideration of circumstances, of
proposals and their implications, of possible courses of action
and their advantages and disadvantages. And through it all
there must be maintained the honour and dignity of men and
women who represent the people of Canada.
The Opposition
The only stimulus which can keep the ability of the government
of the time up to high standards is its liability to the well-informed
criticism of equal ability outside its ranks.
No rational voter in a democracy will challenge the belief
that the people must co-operate whole-heartedly with their
leaders, but at the same time they need to be careful that
the powers delegated to those leaders are not exceeded.
It is a defining characteristic of political democracy that
there exists a legally-constituted organized party or parties
in opposition to the party in power. This is part of the machinery
of democratic self-control.
In Canada, the Opposition has an independent constitutional
base. In working reality it participates in government. It
forces the party in power to seek as broad and tolerable a
synthesis of interests as possible; it ensures that the minority
of voters will be represented to some degree in the policies
decided upon; it restrains the party in power by examining
its proposals for laws; it seeks to persuade the government
to introduce bills which it thinks will benefit the people;
it criticizes, but it should have valid and viable alternatives
to offer. And, of course, it stands ready to replace the party
in power if that party loses the confidence of the House.
It is no small honour and no little responsibility to serve
in the Opposition. A person might be elected to parliament
two or three times and never serve out of opposition, and
yet contribute as greatly to the good and welfare of the country
as if he had sat on the government side of the House.
Having an Opposition in the House of Commons lessens the
burden resting on the shoulders of the voter. Even though
the party for which he voted does not win enough seats to
form the Government, it sits in judgment on the Government
and can influence events.
All the political wisdom does not reside in one party or
another. In Lost Horizon the sage Chang remarked: "Our
people would be quite shocked by having to declare that one
policy was completely right and another completely wrong."
Between them, the Government and the Opposition hope to choose
the better parts of all proposals.
The Upper House
The Senate of Canada provides regional representation on
a non-elective basis, and is expected to be high and dry above
the ebb and flow of party politics. Its powers, in all respects
except one, are equal to those of the House of Commons. The
one exception is that bills to impose taxes or to appropriate
public money must originate in the lower house.
The Senate was never intended to be a competitor of the
House of Commons in the field of legislation, but the concurrence
of the Senate is necessary before any piece of legislation,
public or private, can become law.
The Senate provides a national forum for the discussion
of public issues and the airing of grievances from any part
of Canada, and through its committees it makes studies in
depth of matters of public concern.
John Stuart Mill wrote in his treatise On Representative
Government: "The consideration which tells most, in my
judgment, in favour of two chambers, is the evil effect produced
upon the mind of any holder of power, whether an individual
or an assembly, by the consciousness of having only themselves
to consult."
On being a Member
The tasks of a Member of Parliament are to identify the
problems of Canadian society, to evolve policies from ideas,
to decide upon action, and to carry through the programme.
What gives Parliament its life is the will of its members
to serve it with their full capacities of mind and energy
and passion.
A few think that upon winning office Aladdin's Lamp is part
of the furnishings and that they can rub into existence anything
that they can dream up. Instead, they find that they have
to sit down and diagnose the situation with imaginative insight,
do a lot of research, and then go to work. Government is an
art to be learned, like medicine or engineering or law or
any other profession, and not merely an office to be won.
Political service means a sacrifice of personal convenience
for the public good. One who has vowed himself to politics
is no longer a free agent: he is now a servant of the people.
When he was in private life, he was subject to critical judgment
by his neighbours; now that he is a member of parliament he
is subject to evaluation by every voter in the country.
The Member of Parliament needs to keep himself free from
obligations and pressures and to avoid even the appearance
of evil. The reward of independence was avowed by Pliny, a
prominent lawyer, administrator and landowner: "How glad I
am that I have always kept clear of any contracts, presents,
remunerations, or even small gifts for my conduct of cases."
Political machinery does not act of itself. It needs active
participation. Napoleon once referred to people who "have
no blood in their veins, nothing but frozen politics." No
modern politician can thrive unless he has the mental stimulus
of contact with the needs of the country and the desires of
the people, and the physical urge to get on with the business
of satisfying these needs and desires.
Apply good politics
The simple virtues constitute good politics in a parliamentary
democracy. We admire the conduct of those men and women in
public life who courageously, honestly and intelligently come
to conclusions based on reason, and having come to those conclusions,
can state them fairly, stick by them, and act accordingly.
Sincerity is a vital quality in the person seeking or holding
public office. It means being free from deceit, hypocrisy
or falseness.
When engaging in politics we are in a large-scale impersonal
world removed from contact with the individuals on whose affairs
and interests we are forming a judgment and taking action.
It is, therefore, much harder to bring our ordinary moral
attitudes, such as sympathy, patience, kindness and scrupulous
justice, into play than in private life. But it is essential
for the good man or woman in public life to make the effort.
Machiavelli, in The Prince, agrees that keeping faith
is praiseworthy, but that deceit, hypocrisy, and perjury are
necessary and excusable for the sake of holding on to political
power. This view has been universally condemned.
One duty the parliamentary representative undoubtedly owes
to his constituents is to keep them informed about his actions
and what is going on in parliament. Though the electors cannot
be informed on every issue that confronts government, they
must be sufficiently informed to understand the main drift
of the issues and the whys and wherefores of their representative's
actions.
It is true that government during the past several decades
has been withdrawing from practical contact with citizens
as individuals. Men and women become increasingly mere units
in statistical tables.
This causes many a crevasse of misunderstanding between
citizens and those who act for them in government. Widespread
popular government requires a steady supply of information
upon public affairs to all citizens, and not merely an account
of what was done but why it was done.
Government depends upon consent; the expression of free
consent is frustrated if it is given in ignorance of facts
that should have been made known. People must learn what is
true in order to judge rightly.
Leadership is crucial
Every person elected to parliament is a leader in that he
represents thousands of persons in their effort to build a
community in which they can live safely and happily. The future
of Canada depends upon the willingness of the people to be
led by competent and conscientious representatives in government,
and on the willingness and ability of the leaders to serve
the people upon such terms as the democratic people will accept.
Leaders need to be sensitive to what is significant and
what is trivial and to be prepared to rise above sectional
and selfish interests. They need to have minds attuned to
coping with events and crises. They should cultivate the capacity
Churchill showed when he united the British people and lifted
them above what divided them.
No member should allow himself to be oppressed by granitic
convictions on a subject under debate. He should be willing
to hear what is said to him by his constituents, his party
members and those opposed to him.
On the other hand, he should beware of slipping into the
groove of governing by public opinion polls. Depending upon
the man-in-the-street for advice on a legal measure or on
the conduct of business with a foreign country is about as
futile as for the captain of a ship to consult his passengers
upon problems of navigation. The public figure going around
always with his ear to the ground is in an ungainly posture,
and it is difficult for him to look like a leader.
Toward an ideal state
Part of a leader's duty is to persuade his fellow citizens
to pursue not that which seems most pleasant, easy or profitable
at the moment, but to prefer that which is just and honourable
and best in the long run.
The representative of the people in a parliamentary democracy
would be delinquent in his duty if he presented a picture
postcard view of the promised land as the ideal to be aimed
at. The building of Utopia must be in line with the resources
of the country. Plato, in designing his ideal Republic, lived
in an age so stinted in necessities and so scanty in comfort
that he had only to provide that there would be enough territory
on which to grow food, and that the inhabitants must not let
their wants exceed the bounties of nature.
Utopia cannot be anything else but a place where men and
women will mind their business and do their assignment of
work diligently for the sake of living well. Nevertheless,
the educational value of painting utopias has repeatedly been
established by the fact that many utopian ideals have been
realized through the democratic process.
The good society is above all a society that is examining
and learning and putting into practice. It attends to what
needs to be done today, but it has eyes for the horizon toward
which it is moving. Every member of parliament should look
for and work toward better things: indeed, if he does not
do so how can he be a wise guardian of present things?
Then, in co-operation with the people, he can address himself
to expanding the satisfactions of life, by binding the parts
of Canada together not only in geography but in the bond of
participating citizenship. Instead of seeking merely a higher
standard of living, Canadians will try unitedly to improve
the quality of life.
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